Carving the Hills: The Hidden Toll of Borderland Industry
- Jul 20
- 10 min read
by Mayukh Biswas
The Makrapara Tea Estate, a working garden, located near Indo-Bhutan border, is facing an ecological crisis, with its rivers drying up due to dolomite mining. Even during the peak monsoon season, the riverbeds remain empty. The effects of water scarcity and climate change are also being felt in the nearby Reti-Dhumchi-Titi forests. This situation is compounded by the closure of several tea gardens, which has led to a sharp increase in conflicts between plantation workers and wildlife. The long-term shutdown of gardens such as Tulsipara, Ramjhora, Dheklapara, and Garaganda has resulted in severe human-elephant and human-leopard conflicts. Although these gardens were reopened under the management of the controversial Merico authority, they are operating only feebly.
Meanwhile, the water table across the entire Birpara region has plummeted. Dolomite pollution is destroying the tea bushes. The Makrapara garden borders Bhutan and is home to two factories: one privately owned by the Bhutanese royal family and another owned by the Bhutanese government. Dust emissions from these factories have devastated the adjacent tea plantation, and the abandoned land is now being reclaimed by jungle. The local shopkeeper, Ram Sharma, said, "Come in winter. You will see with your own eyes what happens to this region. The entire area remains covered in just white dust. You can't even breathe."
Displaced local residents, and their derelict homes are scattered throughout the estate. The current owner has even established a profitable pig farm on part of the land, located perilously close to the workers' housing lines. Leopards now prowl these areas after dark, venturing right up to the residential lines. Several abandoned houses have been completely overtaken by vegetation. Even, I found leopard scat within the village itself. Locals report frequent leopard attacks at night, with the animals preying on their livestock. Rakhi Lama, a former tea garden worker said, "My grandson is three years old. At night, I can sense a leopard wandering around right in front of the house. But during the day, he plays freely in the courtyard. What am I supposed to do then, if something happens?"
A section of the Makrapara tea garden is now used to dolomite mining. Many families have migrated to other states for work. Most of the original plantation remains closed and shrouded in jungle, while pollution from the cement factory continues to affect the entire garden. The tea workers are aware of these issues but are reluctant to speak out. Local residents describe how, especially in winter, the air is difficult to breathe and is causing lung damage. A permanent layer of white dust coats the entire region. Cement and dolomite pollution have also made the river water murky. Although the Public Health Engineering Department (PHE) supplies water, it is drawn from the same contaminated sources. People understand that these are the root causes of their skin and stomach ailments, yet they feel powerless to change it. While the community is trying to adapt to the polluted environment, life on the plantation is becoming increasingly difficult. For those living in Makrapara, right on the edge of Bhutan, the struggle is even more acute.
Industrial Activities in Bhutan border zone
Mining is universally recognized as a vital industry for industrial and economic development, providing critical raw materials for infrastructure, manufacturing, and construction Opencast mining, in particular, is the exclusive method for extracting essential minerals like limestone, dolomite, and iron ore. However, this method is inherently disruptive, generating significant environmental externalities, most notably air, water, and soil pollution. The Kingdom of Bhutan, endowed with an estimated 13.5 billion tonnes of dolomite reserves, presents a poignant case study of this duality. Historically, during the 1960s, dolomite was a legitimate and significant export commodity to India, with production reaching approximately 300,000 tons per annum (Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan, 2010). This established a regional economic dependency on the mineral, setting the stage for future complications as regulatory frameworks shifted.
The decline of official mining operations in the 1980s created a vacuum that was rapidly filled by illicit activities. A robust network of illegal open-pit mining proliferated along the southern border of Bhutan, adjacent to India's West Bengal (Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan, 2010). These contemporary operations are characterized by a complete disregard for environmental safeguards. Practices include extensive, unplanned excavations that destabilize entire hillsides, a critical lack of debris containment systems like silt traps or check dams, and the absence of any formal waste management protocols. The Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan (2010) has explicitly acknowledged that "a major portion of excavation at India adjoining south Bhutan is illegal and without following excavation norms." The economic drivers for this illicit trade are powerful; it has become "a major money spinner for its beneficiaries, including many Indian financers", creating a self-perpetuating cycle where profit motives consistently override environmental and regulatory concerns.
The transboundary nature of this environmental degradation manifests as a severe socio-economic and public health crisis in the downstream Indian tea gardens of the Dooars region in northern West Bengal. The hydrological connectivity means that rivers originating in the mining-affected areas of Bhutan flow directly into these gardens. During the monsoon season, uncontrolled runoff carries huge volumes of dolomite-mixed debris and suspended solids, which drench the tea garden soils. Dolomite, being a source of calcium and magnesium carbonate, drastically increases soil alkalinity. Tea plants (Camellia sinensis) are acidophilic, thriving in acidic soils, and this forced alkalization acts as a major production retardant, directly impacting yield and quality. For more than 50 tea gardens, including Bandapani, Makrapara, and Joybirpara in the Madarihat block, this contamination has led to chronic low productivity, with annual production losses. Beyond agriculture, the pollution creates an acute shortage of potable water. Garden workers, with no alternative sources, are forced to depend on the contaminated river water for drinking and domestic use, leading to a higher prevalence of waterborne diseases like diarrhea and diahorrea, as well as respiratory infections and skin ailments. Thus, the illegal mining operation in one nation creates a compounded crisis of livelihood loss and public health vulnerability in another, highlighting the critical need for integrated transboundary environmental governance.
Affected areas
[From top left: highly affected areas; Chamurchi Bhutan border; Industrial Complexes near Lal Jhamela Basti; Dolomite mining near chamurchi area and affected river basin]
Pasakha Industrial Estate and the Central Dooars tea estate: A Case study
The Pasakha Industrial Estate (PIE), located in southern Bhutan close to the Indian border and about 17 kilometers from Phuentsholing, is set to become Bhutan's inaugural major industrial center for mineral production, having attracted over Nu 2.6 billion in investments since 1986. Established in the early 1990s, it hosts several key industries, including Bhutan Carbide and Chemicals Limited (BCCL), Bhutan Ferro Alloys Limited (BFAL), and Tashi Carbon. The industrial landscape has since broadened to include an upgraded Druk Cement facility and a furniture manufacturing unit by Bhutan Board Products Limited (BBPL). Recently, Tashi Group initiated commercial operations at its soft drink bottling plant, Bhutan Beverages Company Limited (BBCL). These larger enterprises are complemented by an increasing number of small and medium-sized industries that have emerged in recent years.
The progress of Pasakha as an industrial hub was notably hindered by catastrophic floods in August 2000, which ravaged residential areas, essential infrastructure, and numerous factory premises. Despite these ecological setbacks, Pasakha remains a strategically beneficial site for industrial development, situated near mineral resources such as quartz, dolomite, and limestone within a 100-kilometer radius in Pachina, Kamji, Tintali, and Gomtu, making it ideal for mineral-centric industries. Its closeness to the Indian border enables efficient logistics for both finished goods and the importation of raw materials and labor. Additionally, the reliable power supply and the dual-lane road linking Phuentsholing to Pasakha are significant assets.
Nevertheless, industrial activities have caused considerable transboundary pollution, adversely affecting neighboring regions in India, notably the Central Dooars Tea Estate in West Bengal's Alipurduar district. This estate, situated in the Kalchini block approximately 42 km from the district headquarters, is nearly isolated from the rest of the district. Access to Jaigaon requires crossing the Basra River, which was spanned by a bridge that collapsed in April 2024. Meanwhile, roads connecting Kalchini have been disrupted by flash floods on the Kalijhora and Pana rivers, resulting in significant destruction and loss of life among local residents. Currently, the Central Dooars tea estate area, especially near Pasakha, confronts severe environmental and health challenges due to industrial pollution. Pasakha, Bhutan's largest industrial zone, has been discharging toxic waste and pollutants into the air and water, impacting over 35,000 residents in the vicinity.
The Central Dooars Tea Estate, located within a kilometer of the PIE, bears the brunt of industrial pollution. Air quality has drastically deteriorated due to emissions from numerous factories, including ferro-silicon, carbide, and cement plants. Monitoring data indicates that PM10 levels reached 466 μg/m³ and PM2.5 levels were 4-5 times above India's daily permissible limits, primarily due to uncontrolled fugitive emissions and fossil fuel combustion. These pollutants form a visible layer of soot on tea bushes, trees, and residential roofs, accelerating corrosion and damaging vegetation.
Water resources are equally affected. Industrial effluent discharged into the Singhi Jhora, Bhalu Jhora, and Basra rivers which converge to form the Kaljani River, has contaminated critical water sources. The Central Dooars Tea Estate relies on these waters for irrigation and drinking, leading to widespread health issues. Government Sajal dhara scheme ia not working here. Trade Union leader Bikas Mahali said that high incidences of respiratory ailments (asthma, chronic coughing), gastrointestinal diseases (diarrhea, acidity), and skin disorders (fungal infections) due to prolonged exposure to polluted air and water. A health survey noted rising cases of cancer, heart disease, and paralysis, though direct causal links require further study. Residents of Rangamati line said that the company's doctor comes for an hour only and nearest health centre is Lothabari Primary Health Centre.
Socioeconomic and Agricultural Consequences
Tea production has also declined significantly due to pollution due to contaminated irrigation water and airborne pollutants that damage tea bushes. This reduction threatens livelihoods, as most residents are tea workers earning meager wages (₹2,500 to ₹4,000 monthly) with limited alternatives. The contamination also devastates local ecosystems- biodiversity loss, disappearing fish stocks, and degraded soil quality are commonly reported.
During our survey in this garden, we noticed that many betel nut trees have lost their leaves. The local residents informed us that the leaves are deteriorating rapidly due to pollution. They also mentioned that the tin shades on their house roofs are corroding quickly and do not last more than three years. We suspect that this is likely due to polluted acid rain. Also, senior tea workers are reporting a new threat of a massive looper caterpillar outbreak. This pest, known for devastating tea leaves in the area, could cause a significant drop in production. According to the workers, the caterpillars have alarmingly developed a resistance to pesticides.
Impacts on the Dooars: Institutional and Political Challenges
The impacts of uncontrolled dolomite mining in Bhutan have severely reverberated across India's Dooars region, particularly during the monsoon season. As heavy rains wash mining debris downstream, over 50 tea gardens in areas such as Birpara, Banarhat, Kalchini, and Jayanti find themselves submerged in dolomite-laden sediments. The consequences are dire. The chemical composition of the soil shifts drastically, adversely affecting tea bushes that thrive in slightly acidic conditions. Dr. B. Bera, Director of Research at the Indian Tea Board, highlights this issue by noting that while dolomite can be beneficial in controlled amounts, the uncontrolled influx causes harmful alkalinity levels, leading to significant drops in productivity by 25-30% yearly and even up to 50% during peak monsoon periods. The magnesium within dolomite also exacerbates soil salinity, further compromising the resilience of these tea plants against drought.
Beyond the immediate damage to agriculture, the hydrological effects of mining have transformed the rivers that nourish the region. As riverbeds rise due to decades of sediment deposition, vital waterways like the Leesh, Gheesh, Torsha, and Raidak have lost their capacity to retain water, leading to increased flooding that inundates tea gardens with contaminated waters. Local rivers, once lifelines for communities and ecosystems, are now termed “ecological sacrifice zones,” plagued by pollution from urban runoff and illegal encroachments. The Mahananda River, once a vibrant source of life, is now grossly polluted, prompting residents to refer to it as 'Mahaganda', a testament to its degradation. The stark rise in waterborne diseases further highlights the cascading effects of this ecological devastation, underscoring the urgent need for sustainable practices to protect both the environment and the livelihoods that depend on it.
Efforts to address the crisis have been hampered by jurisdictional complexities. A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed in India’s Supreme Court in 2019 cited violations of transboundary environmental protocols but remains pending. Indian authorities, including the Central Pollution Control Board, defer responsibility, calling it an "international matter". Bhutanese officials acknowledge non-compliance by factories, especially at night and have imposed fines (totaling Nu 800,000 over two years), but monitoring remains inadequate due to limited equipment and staffing.
Resolving the crisis
The central government has admitted in the Rajya Sabha that pollution from Bhutan's industrial estate is harming North Bengal's tea gardens. This was confirmed in a written reply by the Ministry of External Affairs on December 19, 2024, to a question from BJP MP Samik Bhattacharya. Minister of State Kirtivardhan Singh also stated that talks with Bhutan began in August 2018. A joint delegation from the Tea Board of India and Bhutan's Labour Department visited the site and recommended a separate site visit involving Bhutan's Environment Commission, the Tea Board, the Jal Shakti Ministry (Department of water Resources) , and environmental experts. In November 2021, India urged Bhutan at a Commerce Secretary-level meeting to act on these recommendations, but the COVID-19 pandemic prevented further progress. Despite repeated discussions in border district coordination meetings between Bhutan and West Bengal, no results have been achieved. Beyond sending a delegation and holding meetings, little has been done to resolve the issue.
This dolomite mining crisis along the Indo-Bhutan border represents a classic case of transboundary environmental harm, where economic activities in one country create ecological and economic consequences in another. For the tea gardens of Dooars, this has manifested in declining productivity, increased flooding, and threatened livelihoods. While India has developed a framework of environmental laws and constitutional protections, these remain inadequate to address pollution originating beyond its borders. The existing bilateral mechanisms between India and Bhutan have similarly failed to curb destructive mining practices. Resolving this complex issue will require moving beyond diplomatic discussions to establish binding environmental agreements with enforcement mechanisms. It will also demand recognition by both nations that sustainable development in the border region serves their mutual long-term interests. As climate change intensifies monsoon patterns, the risks from uncontrolled mining and river contamination will only grow. The case of Dooars' tea gardens underscores the urgent need for international environmental cooperation that matches the interconnected nature of ecological systems.
Sources
1. Naik, S. and Purohit, K. M. (1998). Environmental Pollution and Protection. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications.
2. Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan. (2010). Annual Report 2009. Thimphu: Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan.
3. 'Illegal dolomite mining hits tea gardens in Dooars', The Times of India, 15 July. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
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